Fieldfare in the garden

We were so pleased to see a Fieldfare in the snow in the garden today (probably the same one more briefly yesterday afternoon). I hoped that it was attracted by the newly planted Crab Apple, and sure enough it spent some time feeding on the crabs on the tree itself. Paula took a photo with the iphone, and I followed up with a few of my own. Fieldfares are very dramatic thrushes, and I was also very pleased to see over a score scattered across the College grounds, but particularly on the banks of the ditch along the main drive. Make the most of it while its there I thought!

All plumped up...

The Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris, is a common winter visitor to the UK, one which I always absolutely delighted to see, and of course to hear. Perhaps a couple of pairs breed in the UK.

They do have a bit of a reputation of being driven into gardens in hard weather, feasting off crab or domestic apples and whatever they can find. Today was no exception, Twitter containing many similar experiences to our own. I must get some apples to put out! Meanwhile this particular bird has found my crab apple fruits.

I have come across one (only one) website that suggests that the female is a little duller. The juveniles are duller, without the grey head, but I assume they will have moulted before arrival in the UK I think.

About three quarters of a million migrate over to us each winter, starting in September but continuing until November at least.

25 cm long, wingspan about 40 cm, so quite a large thrush, nearly the size of a Mistle Thrush.

When a group is in a tree they all tend to face in the same direction, keeping up a constant chatter. When foraging on the ground, often in association with Redwings, the group works its way up wind, each bird pausing every so often to stand erect and gaze around before resuming feeding. When alarmed they fly off down wind and the feeding group reforms elsewhere.

When berries ripen in the autumn these are taken in great number. Hawthorn, holly, rowan, yew, juniper, dog rose, Cotoneaster, Pyracantha and Berberis are all relished. Later in the winter windfall apples are eaten, swedes attacked in the field and grain and seeds eaten

Milton Creek

A really nice walk out at Sittingbourne today in warm (for December) breezy weather with weak sun. Targets were the long-staying Long-tailed Duck, Clangula hyemalis. The drake is at the back with its longer tail, and the next one is perhaps a youngster, behind two lighter coloured females. I must say that they are remarkably pretty birds:

There are supposedly 11,000 or so wintering in the UK every year, but the distribution is much more Northern in distribution, generally north from Northumberland with high numbers off the East of Scotland. Most birds probably come from the Iceland/Greenland breeding population, but there may also be some from the Russian/North West European population. There are some records in Kent, but not a huge number. According to the RSPB they eat mainly mussels, cockles, clams, crabs and small fish.

The species is of European Conservation Concern, and appears subject to risk from oil spill in the relatively small Finnish/Scandinavian population. The UK wintering population, at the southwestern limit of its range, is therefore subject to protection and at least three Scottish estuarine shores are SPAs in part consequence.

On the tundra breeding grounds the males are highly territorial, and are reported to return to their territories year after year. Nests, with a down covering on a shallow depression in the ground, may be placed among Arctic Tern nests, affording some protection against predators. Nesting takes place from late June, usually close to a pond. The 5 - 9 eggs are brooded for 4 weeks or so, the males leaving early in the process to moult on the coast.

There were plenty of other birds to be seen, particularly at the height of the tide. There were quite a few wigeon about, although they were not particularly vocal today.

There were quite a few Redshank around.

I got a couple of shots of a Black-Headed Gull flying conveniently past, in classic winter plumage. The wing pattern is just so wonderful, both under and over.

Reed Bunting and Hobby at Oare Marshes

A quiet lunchtime at Oare Marshes. I actually arrived at 11.30 and ate my chicken salad sandwiches early!

I got a very cropped shot of a Reed Bunting with a metal ring on its leg.

I hadn't really noticed the amount of grey on the rump and scapulars(?), picked up also on the underparts, and contrasting with the white pattern around the neck. The undertail coverts and belly are also whiter than the rest of the undersides. In some pictures on the internet the grey on the rump is complete (a male characteristic), but here it is streaked with brown - it might possibly go more completely grey later in the breeding season with further plumage wear? I think the same might be said of the black head, it also still looks a little streaked with brown, not truly jet-black yet.

This picture suggests that the upper bill may be quite dark, and the lower bill a little lighter - horn-coloured as in BWP. Also a bit of a suggestion of the convex culmen, supposedly seen in the species.

Interesting how the wings are dropped, and the rump exposed - also seen in some other photos on the web! I wonder if this is a sort of display? BWP suggests the song display involves rump and head "fluffing", but this doesn't seem exactly comparable.

The annual survival rate is about 45%. The UK population dropped considerably around 1975 - 83 from an original figure of around 600,000 pairs, allegedly because of harsh winters and has now apparently stabilised at around 400,000. Habitat is normally the tall vegetation generally associated with wetter land. May also be found, on chalk scrub, and perhaps increasingly, in drier farmland, and young conifer plantations. Now, about half the UK population is found in "farmland", as opposed to "wetland" although boundaries are likely to be permeable and indistinct.

Chiefly sedentary in the UK, although some move a little, and there is a bit of movement towards the southwest. The UK gets a few winter visitors, mainly from NW Europe and Scandinavia. In contrast, West Scandinavian birds are almost entirely migratory, to here or countries in Western Europe such as France and Spain, and East Scandinavian birds are entirely migratory, to countries in Southern Europe such as Italy. Autumn movement chiefly mid-September to mid-November, spring mid-February to April.

Mainly feeds on seeds and other plant material, but primarily invertebrates in breeding season. May feed on ground or low or high in vegetation, for example taking grass seed. Can take insects from the air, for example when seen from perch. Will visit garden feeders and farms in winter.

May flock in winter, perhaps with other buntings and finches. Can roost communally to reduce weight loss, for example in warmer, moister reedbeds. Largest flocks on migration. In spring the males may start to visit their prospective breeding territories in the mornings, returning to the flocks after 9 am. Age of first breeding is one year. Generally monogamous, but extra-pair paternity rife. Polygyny may be increasingly common in older male birds. There is no evidence as yet as to any clear genetic benefit from increased immuno-competence (contrary to previous experimentation in Bluethroats) or increased heterozygosity.

Only the females build the nest and incubate, but both sexes feed the nestlings and young. Territory size is very variable. Territories are used for pair formation, maintenance of pair-bond and nesting. The birds collect food from a wider area, seemingly with little conflict with neighbours. Birds may also continue to roost communally until the eggs are laid, when they start to roost on their territories.

Females visit a number of territories, with males responding by stopping singing and approaching her, perhaps with bits of grass, while she avoids them giving "see" calls. She gradually focuses on one territory (and thus one male) in particular. At pair-formation stage, males start to use "fluffed run" in more open spaces as a courtship display, and increasingly attempts to copulate. He accompanies her closely, making increasing approaches, including physical, rejected at first. Once she is esconced however, he spends a lot of time "teaching" her the territory by following her around its boundaries, in effect gradually confining her to it. When female ready to mate, she begins to attack other trespassing females. Then mating starts, continuing until egg-laying. Female adopts soliciting posture, then male flies directly over to female, and either hovers or lands on her back. Female chooses nest site, accompanied by male, and she then builds the nest itself.

Sings much of the summer, but regarded as not very musical. "Tweek, tweek, tweek, tititick" seems to be a common pattern. Repertoire more complex when carefully analysed, complexities tending to be shared between neighbours, and there may be something of a factor of local dialects. Nestlings and young birds have a range of begging calls.

As I parked up, Cetti's Warblers singing welcomed me to the car park. I walked along towards the East Flood, and watched the 210+ Black-tailed Godwits resting up on the bank on the North side of the East Flood, seen from my favourite spot.  With them were 2 Oystercatchers (2 more on the grassy marsh a bit further to the north). Eventually I noticed three Knot, which took me quite a while to recognise - I tried to think of various migrant sandpipers first, as seen on the other side of The Swale the day before. There were two or more Lapwings around, probably more at the peak of high tide.

I think there were about 8 Avocets, several with brownish tinges to their wings.

Just as i walked back to the car park I noticed first one, and then two, birds in a small tree on the West Flood. They seemed to be perhaps a little large to be starlings, but that was still my best bet. Once I focused the telescope however, I realised that they were a small falcon and a Woodpigeon. Surprised to find both birds in the same tree, I saw a peregrine-like dark hood and moustache, a dark back and a heavily streaked underside, with a rich red-brown tinge around the legs. My first Hobby for several years. It took off, and I followed it with the telescope, eventually noting, both through the telescope and by eye, its rapidly flashing scythe-shaped wings, as it flew towards me, over the Flood, and then back towards the seawall to the west.

Cliffe gets amorous!

A male and female marsh harrier, two barn owls, a kestrel, four greenshank.

Redshanks on The Swale from Oare Marshes on a chilly late afternoon

Arriving at Oare, I concentrated on the Swale and the foreshore, bypassing the tempting close views of Pintail and Shoveller on the East Flood.

It must have been fairly close to Low Tide (16.25 at Southend), and the closest birds were scattered Common Redshank, Tringa totanus, on the foreshore mud. I saw a small amount of "head-jerking" as seen in the RSPB page video. The RSPB states that many of the wintering birds may be from Iceland, and one bird ringed near Kingsnorth Power station in 2001 was recovered in Iceland in 2013.   

Over-wintering birds number about 130,000, with about 25,000 breeders, mainly in NW England and Scotland.

On the RSPB page, the non-breeding plumage looks a little more scaly-edged on the greater coverts and whiter on the belly, but that scaliness doesn't fit the written descriptions as far as I can see - the winter plumage should be much plainer than the breeding.

According to BWP and general understanding, birds in winter on the foreshore tend to feed singly, and sometimes may hold feeding territories, particularly adults. It is difficult for me to see this, without individual markers! At high tide they may roost in small, occasionally large, groups, as we often see on the Radar Pool at Cliffe Pools. At neap tides may be able to continue feeding on the remaining mud even as the tides peak, but at spring tides long inactive periods in tighter flocks may occur at the roosts - I would say that I have commonly seen this at Cliffe for example. Redshank are active at night feeding by touch if it is dark, as well as during the day, when they feed by both sight and touch, and may often be crepuscular.

Both sexes mature at 1 year old, but may not actually breed until their second year. Birds are fairly monogamous and pairings may last for a typical life span, 5 years say, although one bird may have several successive partners during its life, and divorces and repairing may occur within one season on occasion. Bonds may be maintained over winter, or be reformed upon re-arrival at the breeding grounds. The sexes arrive in the area together or the males first. The males gradually start to spend time at the specific scrapes or nest sites, performing scrape displays, and then scrape ceremonies together with the females, and spend increasing time at their chosen sites. Occasionally a second female may lay in the same nest, possibly suggesting bigamy. The males seem more faithful to their particular nesting areas, while females move around areas more. Where same pairs were re-established the following season, the birds generally nested the second year within 5 m of the previous year's nest.

Pairs on breeding grounds generally night-roost fairly close together, either close to the scrape, or on the feeding areas. When not feeding, non-incubating birds generally roost within 5 m of the incubating bird. Sheltered areas and deeper vegetation often used when weather is poorer.

Ground-chasing commonly seen, males generally pursuing females, but a mutually co-ordinated activity. Frequency of ground-chases decreases as proper courtship commences. Males then perform stylised display flights, gliding down and fluttering up in a switchback sequence over the communal nesting or other areas, continuing for as much as a km, lasting for 4 minutes, perhaps mainly by young unpaired females! A successful display flight may attract a female into the air, and the birds may then land together either by the nest or in the feeding area.  As they alight they change from the display-flight song, to an alighting display, including a wing-lifting display, and a specific alighting song. This alighting display is also used when non-incubating bird lands near to incubating bird. A copulatory rattle is also characteristic.

Generally stay together during nesting, often until just around when the young fledge. Sometimes one adult leaves earlier. Fairly non-territorial and semi-colonial during breeding, groups sharing feeding areas, groundspace and airspace around the nests, possibly helping in defence against predators. Often further assisted by nesting in association with Lapwings. In grazed areas breeding density is partly determined by the distribution of suitable tussocks. On salt marshes nests often sited along the ditch sides where the grass is a bit longer.

There were two Black-bellied Brent Geese by the ferry slip, this one looking as though it was feeding on Ulva, the gelatinous Green Alga.

Lots of Shelduck on Horse Sands, and Teal by the mouth of Oare Creek, with Great Black-backed, Lesser Black-backed, Herring, Common Gull, Larus canus, and Black-headed Gulls across the area. Curlew bubbled (with no sign of Whimbrel), there were about 60 Dunlin bumbling around, Oystercatchers were feeding along the water edges, and I spotted two (I think) Grey Plover doing their frozen still act, and one Godwit on the far side of Oare Creek. There were over a score of Avocets. They sweep their bills from side to side and then having raised their bills above the water, they jerk their heads backwards and forwards as if shuffling the items in their bills. There were two Great Crested Grebe on the water. Over on Sheppey I spotted two female Marsh Harriers in the distance.

One possible Stonechat (just by shape with a hint of a white wing-bar) on a bush towards the lightly frozen back of the East Flood.

Whitethroats and Sand Martins at Leybourne Lakes

Quite a few Whitethroats, Sylvia communis, were to be found, defending territories or setting up nests.

I think the one I was photographing here from the first bridge across the stream might perhaps be a male, as although its head wasn't so clearly grey as I would have expected, it wasn't truly brown either. There is quite a clear eye-ring, and I rather think that the brown on the head might be superficial and might be about to wear off. It is still quite early in the season, and most of the females have perhaps not arrived yet. It is known that the males arrive first, and prepare "cock-nests" for the approval of the female. This bird does seem to be the same bird throughout (there appears to be a dimple in the forehead just to the left of the beak in at least some photos), there was a distinct pinkish tinge to the breast, and it was singing well in between visits to the nest, on the other side of the stream, so it is at least possible that it is a male.

The next two pictures are perhaps more clearly a male, if indeed it is the same bird!! To be honest the only thing I can really suggest is that it is an adult, partly because it must be as it is nest building, but also because the iris is not anywhere as dark a brown as would be expected in a juvenile bird, and so the light brown of the iris clearly contrasts with the dark pupil in the centre! The inside of the eyelid is said to be reddish, and I wouldn't strongly disagree, although I wouldn't strongly confirm either!

The beak is also quite well shown in the picture below. The upper mandible is dark horn, the lower is flesh-yellow except at the tip where it is also dark horn. The cutting edges are flesh-yellow. The inside of the mouth is yellow-pink.

The legs are brown (not as pale brown as I have read) with the toes perhaps slightly darker.

In the nominate subspecies, Sylvia communis communis, the moulting process is a complete moult post-breeding before migration, although perhaps partly suspended for the migration period, and then a partial moult pre-breeding.  In the Eastern subspecies, volgensis, rubicola and icterops, the post-breeding moult is partial, and the pre-breeding moult complete.

Nominate males then arrive on the breeding ground with fresh head and body plumage, i.e, the head and body will tend to be browner than the text-books generally suggest. The wings and tail are likely to be more worn, perhaps explaining why it is very difficult to see the normally stated white edging to the tail in this particular bird.

The post-breeding moult is primaries and secondaries descendent, working from P1 outwards towards P10, and S1 outwards towards S6. The suspension of moulting, if it occurs, is more likely to delay the moulting of the secondaries than the primaries.

While I was watching the whitethroat, there was also a Moorhen fussing about on the bank, before it slowly swam off.

The Muscovy Duck was by the feeding area:

The Greylag Geese were present in small numbers around the feeding area, looking in good condition.

One pair had three fairly new goslings.

The Mallards are looking well paired up, and svelte! Here is a drake.

There was one Muscovy drake as well.

Way out in the middle of the Ocean, there were Sand Martins skimming over the water and feeding, but too far away to be more than a blur in the photo.

There was an Andrena species female solitary bee in the shelter by the side of The Ocean, with a shiny black top to the abdomen, but I couldn't be sure of the species. Quite possibly Andrena nitida? (2021 guess).

Whetsted Gravel Pits

There was a single Common Tern, Sterna hirundo, fishing the gravel pits stylishly and successfully! In the first picture, where the bird is dark against the lightness of the sky, I think I can see the light (sometimes called translucent) panel in the middle of the wing that is said to help to distinguish this bird from the Arctic Tern, Sterna paradisaea, where much more of the wing is said to be translucent.  That I don't find this convincing says rather more about my very poor skills as a birdwatcher than it does about Tern field characteristics!

Rather clearer here are the black tip to the otherwise comparitively light red bill, and the not excessively long tail streamers. It is also easier to see the black outer webs on primaries P10 - P5.

Above I think I would only just agree that the dark trailing edge to the wings in the outer primary section bleeds well forward into the rest of the wing but on the lower side there is a limited and sharper dark trailing edge. This does not taper off inwards. A limited dark trailing edge not bleeding forwards to form a dusky wedge on the upper side is said to be more characteristic of the Arctic Tern, and the dark trailing edge on the underside should taper off inwards in that species.

The bird seemed reasonably successful and the one time I followed a dive a small fish was apparently fairly easily taken, as shown below. Common Terns are said to be more likely to dive directly rather than hover briefly before diving as Arctic Terns are generally said to do (Bird Forum), and this bird seemed to halt, twist (bank sharply) and dive almost back on itself but nearly vertically into the water, perhaps flattening out a bit as it hit the water surface. However BWP claims that they do hover but less rapidly than the Arctic. It would be interesting to follow the sequence more exactly with high speed shooting, or even video.

Common Terns are flexible feeders but generally are dive-plunge feeders, often but not always submerging 20 - 30 cm. They also surface feed or even plunge from perches. The main prey is fish, but the diet also includes shrimps and other crustacea as well as insects perhaps taken from the surface. This particular bird just seemed to be plunge-diving for fish!

A more important point though is why hasn't it eaten the fish instantly, as BWP claims it should have done.. Where is it taking it? To a partner or a nest? Or is this bird just passing through, and just being slow to eat its catch?

Perhaps its not too surprising to see an individual inland, but its difficult to know if this is just migrating through the area, or perhaps specifically looking for an inland site to breed upon. This could be a late migrating bird, just arrived following the long journey North from the wintering grounds of West Africa. What a pity there are no nesting rafts on these pits. Once a pair has chosen a nest site they may return to the same site year after year (17 years is apparently the current record until one of the pair failed to return).

After fledging and learning to fish on their own, juveniles may start to move South either in family groups or small flocks of juveniles only. They may trek backwards and forwards for anything up to 3-4 years before first breeding, but sometimes breeding can start at 2 years old. When they are old enough to breed, they may breed in the colony they were born in, or nearby.

Mates do not seem to associate closely in the winter quarters, but arrive at the nest site paired up, having found each other perhaps in the winter quarters prior to departure, on passage, or in and around the colony. They arrive initially at a roost close to the colony and already paired birds can be recognised by roosting closer to each other than the average.

Once the next territory is established it is used for courtship, copulation, pair-bonding, nesting and initially (up to 23 days) concealing and feeding the young.

Population is about 15,000 in UK, fairly stable and the smaller inland population appears to be growing. This pattern not repeated consistently across Europe.

Aythya fuligula - Tufted Duck

Males

On the Fishing Lake by the cafe block at Haysden Country Park on the 27th of January 2014, there were a couple of nice Tufted Ducks, Aythya fuligula, 2 males. This bird below, one of the two, does not have an obvious crest, but I think must still be older than a first winter juvenile, as there is no barring on the flanks. The water droplets still clinging to the feathers may indicate that the bird has recently surfaced and the crest may then be slicked down in consequence.

Other interesting ID features of Tufted Ducks are the interestingly shaped head with the high forehead on a relatively narrow neck. The bill has a good solid black tip or nail (across the cross-section of the bill, looking as though it "has been dipped in ink"). There is more than a hint of a whitish stripe across the front of the bill of this bird, contrasting with the light blue-grey on the rear part of the bill.  This feature is very variable apparently. 

The bird is said to sit low in the water but with its tail above the surface, and I think I would agree with this from this picture to some extent - it looks as though its sitting a bit lower in the water at the moment, perhaps after a dive. It may be that the tail is being splayed out and held just pressing down on the surface of the water. Deep yellow eye, perhaps slightly out of focus.  The contrast between the dark wing and the white sides is nice and distinct, a beautiful bird indeed, moving well across the water!.

On the main Gravel Pit, Barden Lake, other individuals were keeping themselves out of trouble. This one looks very much at rest, but with its eyes open! I think that the wings are most easily seen from this angle, with the two sets of primary feathers forming a valley down the back between the two wings. It also looks to me as though the flank feathers somewhat overlie the sides of the wings, giving that fringed effect to the rear of the white sides. The tail sits slightly cocked in this picture, with the bird sitting still on the siurface of the water.

A drake tufted duck looks very seriously at me, as I stand on the bank at Barden photographing him, on the 19th of January 2013!

This is the same male, on the same day, virtually the same attitude, at 2 different crops.

It's amazing how the droplets of water remain attached to the feathers!

Females

The females show the same amount of darkening at the tip of the biill, with sometimes a little light band just behind. The main part of the bill is a lot darker in the female than in the male. Some of the females show a scaup-like white patch at the base of the bill, although not quite so extensive, and I rather think quite a lot of them show some degree of lighter brown in that area, like the one in the duck below. This duck, 27th January 2014, is in winter breeding plumage, and the bird will probably now undergo a partial moult just before nesting.



This female, at Barden on 31st January 2014, by contrast appears to have only minimal lightening of the feathers at the base of the bill.

While this one has a little bit more. This one also has the white triangle under the tail, as though its gone early (1st February, 2014) into the summer plumage. There may be more to be thought about here.

Here is a quizzical look from this Barden female (1st February 2014):

This picture, taken at         on the 2nd of March 2013, shows the female (behind) in nesting plumage with the light triangle at the rear of the flank. This is very early in the year, very odd indeed. The male may be dipping its head slightly downwards in display. Quite a golden light that afternoon! See how much lighter the male bill is.

First Year

There is some support for the idea that first year males once they finish their late summer moult can still be distinguished from the adult males by some remaining barring on the flanks. The extent of this is unclear, but very obvious according to pictures from the Chichester Harbour Ornithological Group. Here is a male at Barden on the 31st of January 2014 that is showing just one blackish mark in the middle of the flank. Definitely a male from the length of the crest in my view, although it may not be excessively long and perhaps just a glitch, as it may just be one feather. The colour of the darkening is right but the extent appears pretty limited.

So the question is, where are all the first year birds?

and the answer is, they may be there if you look! This was a  bird on its own by Coot Point on the very same day, that I had earlier ignored (!), and when you look at it, it is either dirty or somewhat dark on its flanks - a likely first year bird then, and perhaps the slightly shorter crest as well as the slightly lone behaviour might back that idea up!

Feeding

According to the BTO, "the rapid expansion of the Tufted Duck in Britain during the late 19th/early 20th century is probably due to the colonisation of Britain by Zebra Mussels (brought into London docks in the 1820s)".  The birds are omnivorous, feeding mainly on mussels, insects and plant material taken from the muddy bottoms of the water bodies they are on, diving anywhere between 4 - 15 metres down. It breeds better if there aren't excessive numbers of fish. 

This male at Barden on the      seems to have this lump stuck to the inner surfaces of its bill. Most of the material collected from the bottom of the lake is eaten beneath the surface.

Behaviour

In this picture, taken at Barden on the 19th January 2013, the tail of this male is clearly seen to be splayed out, and apparently pressed down against the water surface. I would imagine that this would tend to stabilise pitch while the duck is paddling forward, keeping the head down and steady, rather than pitching up and down. Incidentally here you can see that the tail is actually a dull black in comparison to the true black of the rest of the plumage.

In contrast, looking at this heavily cropped picture taken on the 2nd of March 2013 at Barden, the tail is held horizontally above the surface of the water, and not particularly splayed. Coincidentally or not, this bird is completely still, not swimming forward at all. 

Diving

This male, on the 31st January 2014, is rolling to its right as it dives. The tail has been pushed downwards nearly vertically to act as a brake and aileron, as the feet get to work propelling the duck into the dive. You cam see the disturbance in the water rear and left of the duck of the first stroke.

  


Breeding

These two birds look as though they have paired up, with the female in complete winter breeding plumage - I cannot see the paler patch at the rear of the flank of the summer nesting plumage.  The birds were cruising down the ditch towards the cafe car park at Leybourne Lakes on the 18th March 2013. There is an amazing size difference between this male and female. I do wonder why the make is holding his head so high, maybe this is a display related to neck thickening. The eye is quite obvious, and perhaps the male has closed its pupil to increase the iris size.

The plumage on the female is the general winter breeding plumage. There will be a post-breeding moult before nesting of the body and tertials March-May. Nesting and incubation would then often be in late May, with incubation through to late June, and taking care of the young through the next about 50 days. Then there is a moult of the wings (and tail)  about July-August when she will be flightless.  

Rough weather

This female is braving the waves at Barden on the 31st January, 2014, and the water is demonstrating its strong surface tension as it slops around her chest.

Its interesting to see how far back this same female is holding her head on her body.

Pressures

There is increasing pressure to develop many existing water spaces in Britain for recreational activities. This trend will increase disturbance to water bird populations. This paper considers these problems and suggests the sorts of information which are needed for formulating multi-purpose amenity plans for water spaces, where a conservation interest exists. The study at the Brent Reservoir in north-west London has shown that a few species of wildfowl, e.g. Anas platyrhynchos, Aythya fuligula, Aythya ferina, still use the reservoir in autumn and winter despite an intensification of sailing activities. This use and the successful breeding of Podiceps cristatus and other species of water birds depends on the existence of a large enough part of the reservoir which is shallow and marshy and not accessible to boats. As there is some suggestion that larger flocks are more sensitive to disturbance than smaller ones, refuges may be made more effective by proper screening. 

Sailing on reservoirs and its effects on water birds Original Research Article Biological Conservation, Volume 11, Issue 1, January 1977, Pages 49-58 L.A. Batten

Population

The Tufted Duck colonised the UK as a breeding bird in 1849, assisted by the arrival of the Zebra Mussel and increasing eutrophication of our natural waters a couple of decades before. Its breeding and winter populations are still increasing and it is interesting to speculate on its continued success. In Northern Europe its population in Northern Europe has tailed off a bit, and the NI wintering population has correspondingly decreased as well.